Whole language approach
Rationale
An idea of a linear sequence from reading to writing and from listening to speaking is not supported in the whole language approach although a natural way of literacy and learning is supported in the whole language approach. Emphasis is made on speaking right away. Learners are also allowed to speak by mixing their native language and words from the language they are learning (Wrigley 1992: 29). It is also possible that learning start writing before reading. They may compose stories orally and then the approximations of print are put down, that are translated back to their group or their teacher. (ibid. 29).

The teaching process does not involve the initiation with the teaching of words that later make phrases and then sentences. Instead, a variety of written and oral messages are given to the students and then the need for additional support is carefully observed. It is also observed that which students will go through greater challenges and then receive benefits (Rigg and Kazemek 1993). The basic concept of the whole language approach is to teach and learn language as a whole and it should not be broken into parts such as phonics patterns, vocabulary lists, grammar exercise etc., because the spirit of language is badly destroyed by breaking it. The second most important concept of the whole language approach is the four language modes provide strong support to each other and they should not be separated from each other. The four language modes include writing, reading, speaking and listening. (Rigg and Kazemek 1993).

Design
A beginning whole language class may explore themes, such as ‘people migrating to different places ’, ‘ countries gaining independence ’, or ‘ families helping each other ’. the ideas and concepts that are related to these themes are talked by learners. The related pictures and symbols are collected and personal histories are told. This interesting process is completed in many steps. First the information is gathered and discussed. Then its analysis is done and the result is kept into book form that is shareable with others. (Huerta-Macias 1993, Rigg and Kazemek 1993).

Use
Cognitive and social aspects of language are focused in the whole language approach. In this way, the learners become able to read, talk and write together and their own way of learning is discussed. (Wrigley 1992). Group interactions and demonstration are used in the whole language approach for the exploration of the way in which literacy and language is used for the expression of their thoughts and the interpretation of their ideas.’ (ibid. 29). Activities involved in the whole language learning are carefully planned. Focus is made towards specific writing and reading strategies. Many options are provided to learners to select what they want to write and read.

Advantages and Disadvantages
According to Wrigley (1992), the whole language approach offers a number of advantages for ESL learners. One advantage is that reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills are integrated. Learning to read and write becomes an extension of the language learning process. Also, because the topics for discussion and the generation of texts are taken from learners’ experiences, both oral language skills and literacy skills may be learned in a more meaningful context, which may motivate students. Finally, since the whole language is an extremely flexible approach, it can be modified in a number of ways to accommodate learners’ individual needs.

While the use of the whole language approach in the teaching of ESL literacy may be extremely rewarding, it is also very time-consuming. Since the use of this approach requires an incredible amount of individualized planning and instruction, it places a great deal of responsibility on the teacher for the management of the program (Wrigley 1992). Also, the whole language approach has been criticized for its lack of vocabulary control or reading skill development. Nevertheless, even when using a whole approach, efforts can be taken to structure lessons in such a way as to reinforce vocabulary and reading skills. While many whole-language teachers admit that they find the approach more taxing on their creativity and time, they also stress that ‘ the use of whole language rewards their sense of professionalism in that whole language requires teachers to make decisions ’ (O’Neil 1989 : 7).

Learner-centered approach
Rationale
Close participation of learners is involved in a learner-centered approach in the decision making process that involves the method of teaching and the content of the curriculum. In other words, the learner-centered orientation puts primary emphasis on participants’ involvement with curriculum development processes (i.e. on students setting their own goals, exploring their own experiences, shaping the curriculum, and evaluating their own learning) (Auerbach 1993).

Design
Jurmo (1989) researched on the levels of learner participation and found out that this approach contains different levels of learners. The initial level of participation involves the signing up a course and be there physically. The highest level of participation includes the considerable responsibility and control of learners for the activities to be performed in the classroom. The design of this approach also focuses on learners’ real-life needs; learner responsibility in setting personal and realistic goals and determining the steps toward achieving those goals; and learner self-assessment (Huerta-Macias 1993).

Use
The learner-centered approach involves collaboration between teachers and learners; through ongoing dialogue, they determine the content of the curriculum and the learning objectives. The whole language approach is extended and complemented in a learner-centered curriculum. This approach uses the background knowledge of the learners and also used their experiences when a curriculum is developed. (Jurmo 1989).

Advantages and Disadvantages
As mentioned earlier, the advantage of this approach is that learners possess responsibilities in setting their own goals and determining the steps toward achieving those goals. However, some who work more directly in the field of adult ESL literacy debate about this type of instructional approach. For example, Anderson (1988) has found out that there is a possibility that learners become unable to express their wishes or needs regarding learning. ‘because of low levels of self-confidence, because they have been ‘‘marginalized in society ’’, or because they have preconceived ideas about appropriate teacher and student roles’ (ibid. 18). Therefore, Auerbach (1990) stresses that instead of ‘trying to cover content that has been predetermined, teachers need to discover content that’s important to their own students’ (ibid. 23).

Participatory approach
Rationale
The other interesting approach to literacy, which has been referred to as a variant of whole language (Spener 1990), involves a curriculum development process that is ‘participatory and is based on a collaborative investigation of critical issues in family or community life’ (ibid. 177). Paolo Freire in Brazil was the first to develop the participatory approach. Emphasis is made on the sharing of decision making process and critical issues related to the lives of learners are examined in this approach. This approach is highly effective in preparing the learners for the development of the skills that are essential for the participation in a new culture and for the confrontation of all sorts of problems. So problems are posed in this approached and uses communal problem solving strategy. (ibid. 178).

Design
strong emotional content containing themes can be discussed in a classroom where the participatory approach is being used. Responses can be obtained from learners about a story, picture, or dialogue in which the required theme is discussed. Such themes may include the relationship among teen-agers and their parents after migrating to the United States. Their relationship in their home culture and then in the US culture can be discussed and the reasons for differences can be found. As appropriate, the literacy teacher might integrate language development activities with these discussions (Huerta-Macias 1993).

Use
Students are shown the relationship among words and word families in many programs in which the participatory approach is involved. The class chooses a ‘keyword’ that has strong meaning for the group, and after discussing the concepts that underlie this word, breaks it into syllables. New words are generated with the help of these syllables. (Spener 1990).

Advantages and Disadvantages
As mentioned earlier, practitioners of participatory literacy in ESL contexts in the US have questioned Freire’s syllabary method. Since English is much less phonetically and orthographically regular than Spanish or Portuguese (the language of instruction in Freire’s Latin American programs), there has been a shift in ESL participatory literacy programs towards the use of ‘whole-word’ and ‘text-focuses ’ methods (Adreini 1992 : 46). Other programs have discontinued the use of generative words altogether, preferring to use language experience and whole language techniques developed for use with English. Participatory ESL literacy programs in the US have, however, retained the two most distinctive features of the Freirean approach, that of the generation of texts through authentic dialogue between equally knowing learners and educators, and the posing of problems related to issues in participants’ lives ’ (Spener 1990 : 180). Finally, Wrigley (1992) concludes that this approach works best with groups who share the characteristics of the people that Freire worked with: learners who share a common language and culture. However, the approach is less effective with groups of learners who do not share the same language and who are not prepared to discuss social or personal issues in English.